ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Quantitative assessment of 2D-3D thematic convergence in UAV-based terrain inventory
Robert Gradka 1, C-F
,
 
Izabela Piech 2, A-C,F
 
 
 
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1
Department of Geodesy and Geoinformatics, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Wybrzeże Stanisława Wyspiańskiego 27, 50-370, Wrocław, Poland
 
2
Department of Agricultural Surveying, Cadastre and Photogrammetry, Faculty of Environmental Engineering and Geodesy, University of Agriculture in Krakow, Balicka 253a, 30-198, Kraków, Poland
 
These authors had equal contribution to this work
 
 
A - Research concept and design; B - Collection and/or assembly of data; C - Data analysis and interpretation; D - Writing the article; E - Critical revision of the article; F - Final approval of article
 
 
Submission date: 2026-03-10
 
 
Final revision date: 2026-04-14
 
 
Acceptance date: 2026-06-22
 
 
Publication date: 2026-06-29
 
 
Corresponding author
Robert Gradka   

Department of Geodesy and Geoinformatics, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Wybrzeże Stanisława Wyspiańskiego 27, 50-370, Wrocław, Poland
 
 
Reports on Geodesy and Geoinformatics 2026;121:67-76
 
KEYWORDS
TOPICS
ABSTRACT
While geometric accuracy, expressed as Root Mean Square Error (RMSE), serves as the primary benchmark in Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) photogrammetry, thematic consistency between planar (2D) and volumetric (3D) deliverables remains insufficiently quantified. This study investigates the "accuracy paradox" questioning the assumption that high georeferencing precision inherently ensures thematic reliability. Research was conducted over a 22.6-hectare rural site in southern Poland. Using a UAV photogrammetric model (3 cm Ground Sampling Distance (GSD), 0.136 m RMSE), independent manual land-use delineations were performed on a high-resolution orthomosaic and a dense point cloud. To evaluate discrepancies, the Convergence Index (CI) was introduced, quantifying relative area differences between representations. Results indicate a total thematic discrepancy of 2.4% (0.5419 ha). However, errors were non-uniformly distributed: infrastructural classes showed near-perfect agreement (CI < 1%), whereas forested areas exhibited CI values exceeding 6%. 2D projections tended to overestimate forested areas, creating a false horizontal expansion of tree canopies. Furthermore, a strong negative correlation (Pearson r = –0.95, p < 0.001) was found between image overlap redundancy and thematic divergence. The study concludes that object morphology and 3D reconstruction completeness exert a more significant impact on inventory reliability than nominal georeferencing accuracy. For high-precision cadastral and environmental surveying, integrating 3D point clouds may be necessary, particularly in vegetation-dominated environments, to mitigate systematic distortions inherent in 2D orthomosaic projections.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Part of the field reference data was collected during earlier research activities conducted under academic supervision and subsequently reanalysed for the purposes of this study.
DATA AVAILABILITY
The datasets generated and analysed during the current study (including high-resolution orthomosaic and dense point clouds of the Starochęciny area) are not publicly available due to their large file size but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. During the preparation of this manuscript, the authors used OpenAI solely to improve language quality, clarity, and editorial structure of the text. The tool was not used to generate scientific content, data, analyses, or conclusions. All text was subsequently reviewed and edited by the authors, who take full responsibility for the content of the article. In addition, selected figures were subjected to minor technical adjustments (e.g., contrast and brightness enhancement) to improve visual clarity, and textual elements within figures (labels and legends) were translated into English. These actions did not modify the underlying data, spatial extent, or interpretation of the results.
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